Ryanair marketing strategies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Ryanair marketing strategies - Essay Example According to the research findings Ryanair began its operations in 1985 with a single 15-seater plane, primarily a conventional airline from Dublin and Waterford in the Ireland Republic to London. During the initial years of operations, the airline faced significant financial challenges, which led to losses in the company. After an analysis of its marketing strategies, the company decided to re-launch in 1990/1991 as a â€Å"no frills†, low cost air carrier, replicating the business model of American Southwest Airline. Since then, price has been the integral marketing strategy of the company, promoting and maintaining its growth in the European low-cost airline industry. These changes were the ideas of Michael O’Leary, initially the financial controller of the company. O’Leary, now the chief executive officer at the company, persuaded Tony Ryan (owner) to redress financial issues affecting the company at the time. He developed a marketing strategy based on Americ an Southwest Airlines, introducing the concept of low-cost, â€Å"no frills† in the airline. These changes stemmed the losses of the company, as well as turning the venture into a huge success. According to statistics, the company posted a profit after tax of 303million dollars in 2006, a 13% increase from that recorded in 2005. Currently, the airline operates in more than 146 routes to 84 different destinations in 16 countries, carrying more than 15 million passengers annually. Further, the airline plans to become the largest airliner in Europe in a few years. By any standards, one can consider the company as successful, primarily based on its growth in the market as well as its profitability. 2. Mission and Strategy The objective of Ryanair is to be the largest and leading low-cost airline in Europe through continuous expansions and improvements in its low-cost services. The primary objective that are in place to achieve this include, low-cost fare, industry-leading custome r service, strong commitment to quality and safety maintenance, flight services on short-haul routes, leveraging the internet, and low operating costs that address personnel productivity, aircraft and equipment, airport access fees and customer service costs. The principal policy of Ryanair is to offer the lowest flight fares available from any carrier (Gugenheimer, 2006:67). For instance, the company often matches the prices of a competitor if they lower their prices. Consequently, one may consider this anomaly given that the company has a strong commitment to provide quality customer service, but these two strategic elements are complementary insofar as the company is concerned. Ryanair strategically uses small regional airports for its flight operations, keeping the operations costs low as well as providing a less congested traffic alternative for its customers travelling, thus less delays. Additionally, the frequent, short-haul flights do not require provision of complex service s such as food and drinks, as they are rather short compared

The Penguin (Sphenisciformes) :: essays papers

The Penguin (Sphenisciformes) The penguin (Sphenisciformes) has been a fascination to numerous people including scientists and researchers alike. They have distinctive characteristics and an interesting classification system. Their eating habits, unique way of breeding and predators are just a way of everyday life that fascinates scientists and researchers. The species status still remains in danger and can hopefully be helped. This unusual bird stands on short legs and walks with a clumsy waddle. These birds cannot fly which is how they got to be called Penguins, which means flightless. All species of penguins have short-bodies and necks. They also all have short thick feathers, which form a kind of waterproof coat. Most penguins’ feathers have feathers that are just white on the stomach and are black and blue on the back. Some have patches of brightly colored feathers on their necks. Theses birds keep warm from the harsh Antarctic conditions by thick layers of fat on their bodies. Their wings developed into flippers, which serve as paddles to help propel them in the water. They also have webbed feet which when combined with the flippers make them excellent swimmers and divers. The species are divided into four groups for easy identification. The groups are as follows, I. â€Å"Large, with orange or yellow patches on the sides of the upper neck (Species 1-2). II. Medium-sized, crested with orange or yellow lines on each side of the crown above the eyes (Species 3-8). III. Medium-sized, with no crest or yellow colour on the head, but usually with stripes of white or black on the head or breast (Species 9-14). IV. Small, with out crest or yellow colouring on heads (Species 15-17)† (Alexander 148). An example of each is as follows: Group I, the Emperor penguin. Group II, the Royal penguin. Group III, Adelie penguin and Group IV, the Whit-filppered penguin. The Emperor penguin is the largest penguin with the most southern range. The top of the head, chin, cheeks and throat are black, with a broad orange semicircle patch on each side of the upper neck. They have a long bill, which curves down, and a short tail composed of 20 feathers. The Royal penguin’s neck, chin, and throat are white. They have a broad orange band across the forehead and a short tail consisting of 14 feathers.

Ccontemporary Epistemological Research in Education Essay

ABSTRACT. In this article the authors challenge contemporary epistemological research within educational settings. After a reconciliation of the current models which treat epistemological beliefs as static and mechanical, the authors present a teaching experience to illustrate their enactivist view that epistemological beliefs should be conceptualized as fluid and dynamic constructs, emerging in web-like configurations. Answers to epistemological questions unfold within the interstices and mutual interactions between people and their environment. Boundaries between student–teacher, individual–community, cognition–bodily experience are becoming blurred. From this enactivist perspective the researcher’s role changes considerably. Instead of determining teachers’ personal traits and epistemological make-up, the researcher should sensitize teachers to the subtle ways epistemological beliefs are enmeshed within their day-to-day professional lives, focusing on the complex fabric of the teaching practice. KEY WORDS: contemporary epistemological research, education, enactivism, lived experiences, personal epistemology. We rehearse information, but perform meaning. Information is like the web of links in a wire fence; Meaning is like the cascade of waves on a mountain stream. Cliff Crego (2002)  © 2002 picture-poems. com THEORY & PSYCHOLOGY Copyright  © 2008 Sage Publications. VOL. 18(1): 27–45 DOI: 10. 1177/0959354307086921 http://tap. sagepub. com Downloaded from http://tap. sagepub. com at Universiteit Maastricht on August 6, 2008  © 2008 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. 28. THEORY & PSYCHOLOGY 18(1) What is the true nature of knowledge, and how does a person come to know? These questions first became subject of psychological investigation in the late 1960s through the seminal work of Perry (1968). Today, these questions are studied under the umbrella of research on personal epistemology (Hofer & Pintrich, 2002). Personal epistemology has come to be seen as the common denominator for research done within this field and as a term signifying individual conceptions of knowledge and knowing. These conceptions are referred to by many disparate labels, of which the most commonly used term is ‘epistemological belief’. Other labels are: epistemological posture, epistemological resource, and ways of knowing (Niessen, Vermunt, Abma, Widdershoven, & van der Vleuten, 2004). Because the term ‘(epistemological) belief’ is already more broadly used within (educational) psychology and thus easy to associate with, we will use this term throughout the article when referring to issues of knowledge and knowing. Within this article we provide a cognitive psychological and an enactivist account of epistemological beliefs and claim that the differences between both are ultimately reflected in Crego’s distinction between the rehearsing of information and performing of meaning. We will apply the enactivist perspective to an interview segment to enable deeper understanding of teaching practice. The application of the enactivist account to this case has the character of a hermeneutic circle. This means that the enactivist account provides us with a background view that enables us to understand teachers’ experiences more fully. At the same time, the process of application is also a practice of opening up and being caught by new insights while interpreting. These insights might alter our epistemological perspective. This study is part of a larger ongoing investigation to understand the phenomenon of resistance by teachers to a Problem-Based Learning (PBL) environment using the epistemological perspective as our interpretive framework. PBL, in short, is an instructional method that, contrary to frontal teaching, chooses not to instruct students directly, but to facilitate the process in which students themselves and in collaboration with each other learn the necessary knowledge and skills by working on real-life problems. The role of the teacher is paramount to the success of this method. This is why the example used throughout this article highlights a teacher (Josie) who is situated within a PBL course. In the following we will first present the fragment taken from the interview with Josie. In this fragment she talks about her struggle to introduce a group of new staff members to ProblemBased Learning. We will also provide a more in-depth linguistic, methodological, and ontological characterization to contemporary epistemological research. Finally the contours of the enactivist perspective will be drawn in more detail. Josie’s Case Interviewer (I): How would you describe yourself as a trainer? Josie (J): I always try to get the group excited about PBL. Downloaded from http://tap. sagepub. com at Universiteit Maastricht on August 6, 2008  © 2008 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. NIESSEN ET AL.: EPISTEMOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN EDUCATION 29 I: How do you do that? J: By trying to get everybody involved. At the same time, this is a potential pitfall. For instance, in a training session last week there was a group of student tutors and this group was really very critical, because they had attended other PBL courses. That was when I found myself trying to create more structure—that’s where I felt inadequate, because there were so many people with so much experience. In these instances it’s important to offer students guidelines and structure. You should be able to deviate from this structure—but only in those cases when it’s possible. Some teachers see this very clearly. Personally, I tend to create structure together with the group—on the spot. With some groups this works out just fine and with other groups it would have been better if I had provided a clear structure from the start. We would have come further. I: Students get restless? J: No, yes, well, there’s too much input and too few conclusions. I think that’s a major thing in PBL—it’s a major issue that too often, maybe, no actual conclusion is reached. That’s really what I think is probably my own shortcoming, something that as a student I thought was missing in the system. That structure—the framework in which you work. I: What does this framework look like—what is it made of? Do you know what I mean? J: A connecting thread. I: You say that on the one hand you’re trying to find this thread —and you want to connect it with the experiences of the participants—but that’s difficult because their experiences are so diverse and a common theme is hard to discern. J: Well, maybe that’s because there just isn’t one single thread and because PBL is based on the assumption that the available knowledge is relative. So you cannot say there’s one single solution to a particular problem. The important thing is that you are working towards a solution. Josie (a pseudonym) is a junior teacher trainer at the Faculty of Economics and Business Administration. She was one out of a group of 10 teacher trainers and 9 new staff members of Maastricht University in the Netherlands who were interviewed about their experiences with PBL, their concerns and unresolved issues. The participants we interviewed came from different departments of Maastricht University and differed considerably in experience with PBL, general attitude towards teaching, general teaching experience, and opinion about the value of PBL for student learning. Despite the marked differences in background and experience among the interviewees, Josie was not the only one who presented a complex and multilayered experience. Looking at other participants’ day-to-day teaching experiences, we similarly encountered varied and multilayered stories. This phenomenon is neither strange nor new. Studies by Perry (1968) and Lyons (1990), but also more recently from Phillion and Connelly (2004), show us that when researchers turn their attention to actual teaching experiences, the presented picture of teaching and epistemological beliefs is more textured and complex. The Downloaded from http://tap. sagepub. com at Universiteit Maastricht on August 6, 2008  © 2008 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. 30 THEORY & PSYCHOLOGY 18(1) selection of this particular segment has been guided by the potential to learn from it about the role of epistemological beliefs in teaching. According to Stake (1994), ‘the potential for learning is a different and sometimes superior criterion to representativeness’ (p. 243). The fragment shows how Josie is struggling with the question: ‘How do these students come to know? ’ In the interview, Josie as a teacher trainer talks about her ideas and ideals of student involvement within her courses. She says that in some situations she finds it difficult to realize these ideals. She refers to her attempts to structure group sessions. She thinks that in order to do so, she has to develop ‘a connecting thread’ that will enable the group to achieve a sense of closure. This metaphor nicely illustrates Josie’s narrative approach to teaching. Her goal is to develop, together with the group, a storyline with a beginning, middle, and an ending. She expects that this jointly developed plot will enable the group to close the session in a satisfactory way. Josie’s ideas and strategy implicitly characterize her epistemological approach to one of the key questions in epistemology: ‘How does a person come to know? ’, or ‘How should this group of students come to know? ’ We can see an answer emerging from the confrontation between her ideals, her self-image, and the group with its characteristics. When she says ‘It’s in these instances that it’s important to offer students guidelines and structure’, she refers to her failed attempt to provide guidance, which, to her, was necessary to give the group a satisfactory sense of closure. This experience appears to have triggered a slight change in her epistemological outlook. Instead of her a priori assumption that students should be regarded as knowledgeable others, who will work together with the teacher to create a common thread, she now thinks that the group process also depends on her ability accurately to estimate the amount of prior experience that students bring to the course and her own experience and skills. Josie’s rapport with the group of students is coloured by her ideals about student involvement. It is also with this particular group of students, who have so ‘much experience’, that she discovers the failure of her usual strategy, i. e. developing a structure ‘on the spot’ together with the group. In her own words: ‘Their experiences are so diverse and a common theme is hard to find. ’ As a result she is confused and forced to reassess her epistemological ideal of student involvement in light of the concrete situation. Looking back on this experience, she reflects on the epistemological perspective underlying PBL and in doing so realizes that there isn’t just one single solution to a problem and that all knowledge can make a contribution. The lived experiences of Josie as a teacher are interpreted as an indication that the epistemological questions can only be meaningfully understood when they are placed within the context of the story that defines the situation as a whole. To put it in more general terms, in order to assess a situation epistemologically or Downloaded from http://tap.sagepub. com at Universiteit Maastricht on August 6, 2008  © 2008 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. NIESSEN ET AL. : EPISTEMOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN EDUCATION 31 make sense of teachers’ experiences epistemologically, we need to take account of the circumstances that constitute each new teaching situation. In Josie’s case these circumstances included her conviction that a common thread had to be identified, her skills to get the group to do this, the group size and group members’ varied experience. We would assert that her epistemological belief is essentially ‘indexical’ (Roth, Lawless, & Tobin, 2000), meaning that it is significant only as seen from within the concrete circumstances in which it arises. In the following section we will focus on the contrast between this view of epistemological beliefs and the prevailing views in contemporary epistemological research. Contemporary Epistemological Research Although the term ‘contemporary epistemological research’ suggests that there is a unified research domain, there are in fact different movements to which researchers within the domain of personal epistemology may turn. These movements may be referred to as ‘trait-oriented’, ‘theory-minded’, and ‘resource-oriented’. This means that researchers typify epistemological beliefs respectively as traits, theories, or resources (Hammer & Elby, 2002). Although we agree with Hammer and Elby that there are some important differences among these movements, we also discern an important mutual characteristic: all are rooted in cognitive psychology. This seems to offer an interesting perspective for an analysis and characterization of the field as a whole, because it would go to the very heart of research on epistemological beliefs regardless of the particular movement. In our view, Crego’s phrase ‘rehearsal of information’ very aptly captures the essence of contemporary epistemological research in relation to three interrelated angles: language, methodology, and ontology. Linguistic Idiosyncrasies of Contemporary Epistemological Research A striking linguistic characteristic of the cognitive psychological discourse about the foundations of thinking and believing is a marked preference for the use of nouns (Saljo, 2002). Since contemporary epistemological research is grounded in cognitive psychology, this characteristic is also discernible in epistemological research. The phenomenon addressed within epistemological research can be denoted by different labels: epistemological belief (Duell & Schommer-Aikins, 2001; Hofer, 2000; Hofer & Pintrich, 1997, 2002; Schommer, 1994, 1998b), epistemological position (Perry, 1968, 1988); epistemological theory (Hofer, 2000; Hofer & Pintrich, 1997, 2002), epistemological standard Downloaded from http://tap. sagepub. com at Universiteit Maastricht on August 6, 2008  © 2008 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. 32 THEORY & PSYCHOLOGY 18(1) (Ryan, 1984a, 1984b), epistemological resource (Hammer & Elby, 2002), epistemological style (Martin, Silva, Newman, & Thayer, 1994), epistemological reflection (Baxter Magolda, 1992, 1994, 1996), epistemological posture (Desaultes & Larochelle, 1997), epistemological orientation (Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, & Tarule, 1986), epistemological antecedent (Powell, 1996), and ways of knowing (Belenky et al. , 1986). The worrisome aspect of the predominance of nouns as the building blocks for thinking and believing is that it creates the impression that people’s capacities and ideas should be conceived of as unchanging objects (Saljo, 2002). Nouns distract our attention from the processes in which epistemological constructs can be seen to emerge. Nouns denote a final state as opposed to a process in which actions and thoughts are continuously taking shape and modifying each other. The idea of stability is reinforced by the tendency to represent epistemological beliefs as stable cognitive traits or theories (Hammer & Elby, 2002). Epistemological beliefs are seen as trait-like or theory-like features which are stored and acted upon inside the brain. From an epistemological trait perspective, individuals’ beliefs and ideas about epistemology tend to cohere into stable ‘positions’ or ‘levels’, ‘phases’ or ‘stages’, which can be distinguished from other ‘levels’ and ‘phases’ with regards to organization and quality. They are seen as declarative knowledge to which a person has conscious and articulate access. In epistemological theories, beliefs are perceived as being structured in this way (Hofer & Pintrich, 1997, 2002). Congruent with the tendency to see epistemological beliefs as stable and object-like traits or theories stored within the individual mind, most researchers tend to refer to epistemological beliefs in terms of ‘individuals having them’ (Pehkonen & Torner, 1999). Another feature within Western society that reinforces thinking about epistemological beliefs as objects and unchanging is the linguistic tendency to typify mental phenomena dichotomously, i. e. as belonging to either–or categories (Amstutz, 1999; Davis & Sumara, 1997). Examples of such dichotomies are: mental–physical, internal–external, individual–collective (Davis & Sumara, 2001; Heft, 2001). Membership of one category precludes membership of the other one of the pair. This divisive either/or mode of thinking reinforces the image of people as unchanging. Something or someone is or is not of some category. According to Langer (1989, 1997), divisive thinking has this effect when people take categories or opposites literally or without mindful attention. She calls for heedful and critical thinking in which mindless acceptance of categories is regarded as the opposite of powerful learning. We think that a contemporary interpretation with a language that treats epistemological beliefs as stable and trait-like or object-like has trouble interpreting the epistemological picture that arises from teachers’ concrete perspectives. When we analyse Josie’s account and realize that she tunes into the situation as a process that unfolds in interaction with the group, we realize Downloaded from http://tap. sagepub. com at Universiteit Maastricht on August 6, 2008  © 2008 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. NIESSEN ET AL. : EPISTEMOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN EDUCATION 33 that the boundaries between individual–collective, self–other, and internal–external are not clear-cut. They are fuzzy, blurred, and overlapping, and we see no clearly outlined either/or distinctions. We think epistemological beliefs should be better conceived of as emerging characterizations within a process of mutual adaptation, such as in Josie’s attempts to tune in to the ideas of the group and to her own and reconcile them. Because this process unfolds concurrently with the teaching process, it cannot be fully anticipated a priori or even as it is being enacted. To us, this view is compatible with a concept of epistemological beliefs as continuously unfolding processes, like waves cascading down a mountain stream. Just as the water and the mountain are being shaped and reshaped in their continuous interaction, so is the answer to the epistemological question ‘How do these students come to know? ’ being rephrased under the influence of interaction in a concrete teaching situation. Particularities Regarding the Methodology within a Contemporary Epistemological Perspective Characterizing the methodologies that are used in contemporary epistemological research, we see an equally differentiated array of instruments: production-type tasks, open-ended interviews, vignettes, observations, illstructured problems, and Likert-type questionnaires (Duell & SchommerAikins, 2001). What is striking to us is that despite this diversity, epistemological beliefs research is exceptionally unitary in its preference for using the individual and his or her beliefs, knowledge, desires, and attitudes as the unit of analysis (Lyons, 1990). We think this preference is congruent with the predilection for nouns emphasizing the object-oriented way of thinking; it seems to us that an orientation towards epistemological beliefs as object-like has been (tacitly) operative in the development of instruments that are used to study them as personal and stable traits or theories. We notice that an orientation to the individual is especially recognizable in questionnaire (Likert-type) studies and standardized interview studies. Despite growing criticism of questionnaire studies, they have been and continue to be an important method in studies of epistemological beliefs (Duell & Schommer-Aikins, 2001). Part of their popularity seems to be attributable to their easy and quick administration. Nevertheless, Hammer and Elby (2002) reveal a fundamental problem when they point out that item formulation is often far removed from day-today teaching practice while at the same time it is assumed to pertain to these contexts (see, e. g., Schommer, 1998a; questionnaire: ‘Nothing is certain but death and taxes’). According to Hammer and Elby, this is neither true nor Downloaded from http://tap. sagepub. com at Universiteit Maastricht on August 6, 2008  © 2008 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. 34 THEORY & PSYCHOLOGY 18(1) viable when made explicit. Most epistemological studies ask participants direct questions about their beliefs, often by presenting epistemological statements and asking them to rate their agreement/disagreement on a Likert scale. For example, students may be asked whether they agree or disagree that ‘the best thing about science courses is that most problems have one right answer’ (Schommer, 1990, p. 499); ‘the science principles in the textbooks will always be true’ (Songer & Linn, 1991, p. 769); or ‘knowledge in physics consists of many pieces of information, each of which applies primarily to a specific situation’ (Redish, Saul, & Steinberg, 1998, p. 217). It is only by a presumption of unitarity that the results of these studies may be considered to apply to all contexts of learning (Hammer & Elby, 2002). However, the item formulation must be generic to preserve internal congruence throughout the whole study. It would be incongruent to perceive of epistemological beliefs as stable traits or theories but apply highly context-specific or dialogical research methods. A generic item formulation makes perfect sense given the a priori position that epistemological beliefs are stable phenomena. Epistemological beliefs are seen as tangible features and measured congruently. They can therefore be conceived of as entities that impact on teaching behaviour linearly, i. e.cause exists as an inherent constituent of epistemological beliefs. Contemporary cognitive epistemological research is concerned with the search for explanations of the epistemological perspective in order to predict and control students’ and teachers’ behaviour. Using standardized (correlational) measuring techniques, researchers are able to identify these linear and law-governed patterns. The role of the researcher in this process is merely to uncover these relationships objectively, with validity and reliability (Guba & Lincoln, 1989, 1994; Lincoln & Guba, 1985, 2000). In interpreting Josie’s segment, it is true that Josie shows an epistemological preference to create a common thread together. At the same time we also see that this preference becomes ‘active’ and is questioned while interacting with this specific group. Her experience of the situation she describes has led her to acknowledge that in this instance—given her own and the group’s experience—a different approach might have been more successful. Confronted with this new experience, a breach is made within otherwise customized behaviour. These breaches provide opportunities for change and revision of ideas to suit local circumstances. We interpret Josie’s ultimate handling of the situation as the result of reciprocal dynamics between different personal and situational elements, whose influence can be seen from a holistic point of view, but which cannot be reduced to any element or correlation in particular. Downloaded from http://tap. sagepub. com at Universiteit Maastricht on August 6, 2008  © 2008 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. NIESSEN ET AL. : EPISTEMOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN EDUCATION. 35 The Particularities Regarding the Ontology within a Contemporary Epistemological Interpretation Ontology is the subdivision within metaphysics that deals with the nature of being. More concretely, ontology is revealed in the question: What is real? We might thus ask whether epistemological beliefs are real. According to Baptiste (2001), one of the most troublesome questions surrounding the issue of ontology is the distinction between the facticity and the quality of a thing. Facticity refers to the question of whether a thing exists. In our case we might ask if epistemological beliefs do exist. Departing from a realist perspective (Heron & Reason, 1997), the answer within contemporary epistemological research is that epistemological beliefs do indeed exist as theories, traits, or resources. For realists, epistemological beliefs are just as real and tangible as observable objects. The quality of a thing refers to the form of a phenomenon or the nature of an object. Within contemporary epistemological research, epistemological beliefs are thought of as psychological and physical phenomena. They are psychological because they reside in a person’s mind. They are also (presumably) physical on the basis of the default assumption that epistemological beliefs correspond to cognitive units in the brain (Hammer & Elby, 2002). Finally, there is the question of whether it would be possible for epistemological researchers to claim that epistemological beliefs exist without reference to cognitive psychology or cognitive science. Contemporary epistemological research, although not explicitly referred to, heavily draws on cognitive science and cognitive psychology as its foundational precursors, meaning that these strands are the background theories they implicitly build on. Varela, Thompson, and Rosch (1997) have pointed to the reifying effect of cognitive science on cognitive psychology when describing the centrality of the computer metaphor and similar language use. This computer-oriented language is also apparent within educational research in general and epistemological research in particular (Davis & Sumara, 1997). It depicts humans as disenchanted, cerebral beings who receive and process information from events and objects to establish representations (beliefs, desires). These representations in turn govern and give meaning to their own behaviour and that of others. In Josie’s interview, but also in the other interviews we conducted, we see from an enactive viewpoint first and foremost acting persons (Packer & Winne, 1995) who stumble and haphazardly manage to guide their classes through the course. Josie’s hesitation to infer definite conclusions about the preferred course of action in this particular situation is hard to interpret as an image of information rehearsal, the picture we see framed within contemporary epistemological research. As we see it, in this particular situation her answer to the question ‘How do these students come to know?’ is embedded within a network of concrete relations and a process of mutual attunement. Downloaded from http://tap. sagepub. com at Universiteit Maastricht on August 6, 2008  © 2008 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. 36 THEORY & PSYCHOLOGY 18(1) In our view, Josie’s hesitation to draw definite conclusions should not be deplored but welcomed, because it may open up opportunities that may lead to epistemological attunement, which may guide students and teachers to the most appropriate end. The interview excerpt with Josie illustrates the existential dialogical nature or ontology in which it is hard to dissect the knower from the known, mind from body, student from teacher, teacher from context, et cetera (Hosking & Bouwen, 2000). Josie’s teaching might be viewed as a responsive choreography in which her behaviour and beliefs co-evolve within a relational web of individual inclinations or cognitions, her skills as a teacher trainer, the characteristics of the students she teaches, and the dialogue between these elements altogether. In the final section of this paper, we will explain and illustrate our enactive or dialogical world orientation. An enactivist world orientation is grounded in the assertion that people form complex fabrics of fundamentally and inextricably intertwined relationships with everything else—physically/biologically and experientially/phenomenologically (Davis & Sumara, 1997). From this viewpoint, epistemological beliefs are not primarily or solely cognitive features, but they are temporarily crystallized enactments in ever-changing webs of mutually defining elements. An Enactive and Dialogical Perspective on Epistemological Beliefs So far, we have focused on a passage from Josie and characterized contemporary cognitive epistemological research from a linguistic, methodological, and ontological point of view. The enactive epistemological perspective takes into account many elements, such as the group experience, the group size, and her own (in)abilities to provide a common thread (structure). In this final part of the discussion, we take up the challenge to sketch and explain more thoroughly the contours of an enactivist interpretation that enables us to take into account these elements to which Josie refers. Although we typify our interpretation as enactivist, we will also draw on theoretical notions derived from philosophical hermeneutics (Gadamer, 1990; Widdershoven, 1999) and narrative psychology (Abma, 2000; Josselson & Lieblich, 1999; Lyons & LaBoskey, 2002). Enactivism is an emerging worldview that lingers in between and draws from different domains, including philosophical phenomenology (Varela, 1999), complexity theory (Waldrop, 1992), and evolutionary biology (Bateson, 1979, 1987). Although this worldview is of reasonably recent date, it is receiving more and more attention within the domain of education (Davis & Sumara, 1997, 2001, 2002; Davis, Sumara, & Kieren, 1996; Sumara & Davis, 1997). Within the domain of contemporary epistemological research, enactivism has been largely absent, although the work by Belenky et al. (1986) and Lyons (1990) shows strong similarities. In the following we will Downloaded from http://tap. sagepub. com at Universiteit Maastricht on August 6, 2008  © 2008 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution. NIESSEN ET AL. : EPISTEMOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN EDUCATION 37 first explain enactivism as it is defined by Davis and Sumara in the field of education (Davis & Sumara, 1997, 2000, 2002; Davis et al., 1996). Although not directly translated to the educational or the epistemological field, we will also be using some of the terms (eclectically) used by Varela et al. (1997) since they are eminent in the field of enactivism. To ‘enact’ means ‘to work in or upon’ or ‘to act or perform’. ‘Enactivism’ refers to the idea of knowing in action. People come to know and believe about the world by interacting with it bodily, experientially, and cognitively. This means that individuals are simultaneously biological and social beings who experientially embody both cognitive and physical dimensions within their actions. Because continuous interaction is such an important feature of enactivism, one could claim that it holds a relational ontology meaning that all social realities and all knowledge of self, others, and things are viewed as interdependent or co-dependent constructions existing and known only in relation to each other (Hosking & Bouwen, 2000). When we review Josie’s story again, we see a rather inexperienced teacher trainer who struggles with the epistemological question: ‘How should these students come to know? ’ Her commonly used approach to create a common thread together is rather problematic given her own (in)abilities within a large group of experienced students. As a consequence of this inexperience she adjusts her epistemological outlook to include the notion that when faced with a rather experienced group she needs to hold more control. Interpreting her account enactively, we would claim that her final outlook to this particular situation is the result of the interaction between her ideal to create a common thread together and her communication skills, her self-image, the group’s size, and the amount of experience of the group. It is the confrontation of these elements within the concrete enactment that sets the stage for this particular response to arise. The enactive paradigm as exemplified by Varela et al. (1997) emphasizes the relev.

Culture and Grief - 1667 Words

When the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2011 rocked New York City, Pennsylvania, and Washington D.C., the word â€Å"tragedy† was used on a grandiose level around the world. For the people who lived close enough to experience the events first-hand, they may not have even called it a tragedy; perhaps they called it a misfortune, retaliation, lack of a strong government, unreal, or maybe even rebirth. In the coming years after the attacks, everything between standing united as a nation to declaring a war had flourished; but how has that left us - the land that has no distinct ethnicity - feel about each other? Why is it that fear is usually missing in the affective mnemonics of memorial sites, which, after all, are signifiers of some of the†¦show more content†¦The memorial itself is beyond beautiful: radiating a kind of halo just before sunset that nearly encapsulates where the Twin Towers once stood. The two walls are made from â€Å"architecturally finished conc rete† with the 746-deceased family members from New Jersey etched in stainless steel. The memorial was initially built to â€Å"reflect the legacies of those whose lives were lost, that their unfulfilled dreams and hopes may result in a better future for society. Their unique qualities and characteristics enriched our lives immeasurably and through this memorial, their stories live on.† (Jordan, 2011) I visited the memorial on two occasions for a few significant purposes; the first one was to compare the amount of people who just leisurely strolled by in comparison to the amount of people who actually walked between the walls, read the names of the deceased, talked and expressed feelings with friends/others about it, etc. The second reason was to plug in the comparisons from the first two visits on how many people engaged in the memorial and compare the ethnic diversity amongst the two. I focused on ethnic diversity as a cultural factor because it does contribute to the level of bias/racism (especially geared towards Muslims) that was created post-9/11. As a country that really has no ethnic identity and that â€Å"freely† accepts any color and backgrounds, I thought it would be crucial to point out how diversity affects the theoryShow MoreRelatedA Critical Comparison Of Expressions Of Grief1419 Words   |  6 PagesA Critical Comparison of Expressions of Grief in Asia Death is universal and while grief is a common reaction to this inevitable occurrence, responses can be varied across Asian cultures. Ethnographic accounts reveal how grief and bereavement is expressed in this region and provides a basis for discussion. By concentrating on specific Asian regions, it is possible to identify the similarities or differences between the experiences and expressions of grief within Asia, contrary to Western perspectivesRead MoreDisenfranchised Grief By Kenneth Doka1417 Words   |  6 PagesDisenfranchised Grief in Nurses Disenfranchised grief can affect an individual experiencing loss that is not societally recognized. A term originally described by Kenneth Doka, disenfranchised grief is classically defined by four components, and one specific population subject to experiencing disenfranchised grief is nurses. This is due to the predominant cultural values found in the nursing profession as well as the parameters of the nurse-patient relationship. Knowing that nurses are potentiallyRead MoreDifferent Stages Of The Grieving Process1607 Words   |  7 Pageshandle death in many different ways. People’s culture, age and gender all have an important impact on how they will cope with the death of a loved one. It’s important for nurses to understand all aspects that play into how someone deals with death so they can better help provide the correct care and support. This paper will explain what grief is and the different stages of the grieving process, how children, being male or female, and diverse cultures cope with death, and how nurses can better supportRead MoreBiological, Cognitive, And Social Cultural Influences On Grief1275 Words   |  6 Pagesbiological, cognitive, and social cultural influences on grief. Biological influences during the grieving process pretends to effects brought on by the unfortunate loss of a love one. Biological influences such as in the act of crying, smiling, joking pulling of hair, scratching of the face along with other self-injurious behaviors. Biological influences are based on ones very one cultural rules and traditions. Cognitive influence on grief is the matter of how the brain responds to mortality. PsychologicalRead MoreGrief, Loss, And Finding Meaning And Purpose1079 Words   |  5 PagesGrief, Loss, and Finding Meaning and Purpose Losing a loved one is very painful as it brings about difficult emotions which may seem as if they may never end. While there are no standards of accessing ways to grieve, there are healthier ways to cope with the pain. Noteworthy, everyone grieves differently; some may withdraw and isolate themselves while others engage in activities that distracts their grieving. Grieving depends upon a number of factors such as individual personality,Read MoreMigrant Groups Are More At Risk Of Developing Mental Disorder903 Words   |  4 Pagesreligious norms, changes in own identity and adjustment to a new culture. These stresses related to migration impact the mental health of migrants and there are strong evidences which suggest that certain migrant groups are more at risk of developing mental disorder. Moreover, the rate of mental illness is also increased among migrants (Bhugra, Gupta, Bhui, Craig, Dogra Ingleby, 2011). The loss of culture and social support cause grief which is a healthy reaction and natural consequence of migrationRead MoreCompare And Contrast Leininger And Kubler Ross1575 Words   |  7 Pages Nursing theories help to guide patient care. For instance, Madeleine Leininger developed the theory of Culture Care Diversity and Universality also known as transcultural nursing (TCN), which helps nurses to be culturally competent. The re are also non-nursing theorists which can add to a nurse’s knowledge in caring for their patient. Elisabeth Kà ¼bler-Ross’ theory on the five stages of grief is an example of a non-nursing theorist. The purpose of this paper is to discuss Leininger and Kà ¼bler-Ross’Read MoreNew Normal Project : An Intervention For Grief And Loss1000 Words   |  4 PagesIntervention for Grief and Loss†, talks about a technique that is used to help clients to process grief and loss, and recognizes that the client â€Å"is the expert on their experience† (Vaterlaus, J., pg. 79). After a counseling session, the client receives a handout that explains the stages of grief and the counselor helps the client to understand that the process is normal. The new normal project helps the client to identify strengths to retain and potential solutions for the grief (pg. 79). The endRead MoreGrief And Grief By Mark Twain1410 Words   |  6 Pagescomes the grief, which for some may be a great burden, Merriam-Webster defines grief as â€Å"deep and poignant distress caused by or as if by bereavement† (2012, par.1). Grief is a process that, while an incredibly unique process, is an inevitable stage for all those living a life surrounded by those they love, cherish and value. This paper will examine the five stages of grief and how other varying cultures handle death and grieving. Hopefully, providing a better understanding of how grief works in ourRead MoreGrief : Grief And Grief1120 Words   |  5 PagesGrief/ Mourning Grief is a part of life that is simply unavoidable. People grieve over a multitude of different things. For instance, when one thinks of grief they often immediately think of death; that a person has to experience the loss of a loved one to understand and go through the grieving process. However, grief is defined as â€Å"deep sorrow,† so anything causing one to feel a deep sense of sadness can cause them to go through the grieving process. The process of grief consists of five stages

Clinical Outcome Research Regarding Pediatric Bipolar...

Section 1. Summary of Clinical Outcome Research Regarding Pediatric Bipolar Disorder Bipolar Disorder is a life-impacting condition that is often chronic, creates significant impairment, and is marked by a cycling between depressive and manic episodes. These episodes are manifested by unusual and extreme shifts in mood, energy levels, and behaviors that interfere with executive functioning (Wilkinson, Taylor, Holt, 2002). Divided into two levels of diagnosis; Bipolar I Disorder is defined by the occurrence of a manic episode that may or may not be accompanied by hypomanic or major depressive episodes (American Psychological Association, 2013). Furthermore, a diagnosis of Bipolar II Disorder is comprised by a hypomanic episode and a major depressive episode (American Psychological Association, 2013). For many years, the diagnosis of Bipolar Disorder in children has been controversial, partly due to the difficulty of identifying symptoms that are age appropriate versus clinically significant in children (Birmaher, 2013). Furthermore, Pediatric Bipolar Disorder can often present similarly to or occur comorbidly with other disorders such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Oppositional Defiant Disorder, and anxiety disorders (Hart, Brock, Jeltova, 2014). Flaherty (2013) depicts Pediatric Bipolar Disorder as often having similar symptomatic presentation to pediatric schizophrenia. However, in recent years, Pediatric Bipolar Disorder has been gainingShow MoreRelatedWhat Is Childhood Bipolar Disorder?2344 Words   |  10 Pages What is Childhood Bipolar Disorder? A Review of the Literature Barbara Diaz University of Houston-Downtown Author Note This paper was prepared for Psychology 4308, taught by Dr. Jennifer Montgomery Abstract Since the 1990s, the amount of children who are diagnosed with a form of bipolar disorder have rocketed sky high. Children, like adults can possibly have neurological issues in the brain that does not allow them to function properly. These children are seen as hyperactiveRead MoreEarly Diagnosis And Indicators Of Bipolar Disorder3068 Words   |  13 Pagesdiagnosis and the application of a variety of therapies for bipolar disorder are examined through the lens of a mix of quantitative, qualitative and mixed peer reviewed journals acquired from data sources such as MEDLINE, and Psycinfo by using Boolean language in Lamar University’s library data base. Current studies into the dynamics of manic depression or bipolar disorder, offer insight into future treatments; diagnosis of pediatric bipolar disorder (PBD); and detection of BD at a genetic level. ConcernsRead MoreYouth With Bipolar Disorder Type I- An Exploratory Study Essay3661 Words   |  15 Pages PRODROME OF MANIA IN YOUTH WITH BIPOLAR DISORDER TYPE I- AN EXPLORATORY STUDY THESIS SUBMITTED IN PART OF FULFILLMENT OF THE REGULATIONS OF THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH AND NEUROSCIENCES (INSTITUTE OF NATIONAL IMPORTANCE) FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF MEDICINE IN PSYCHIATRY BY DR. LAVANYA P SHARMA DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHIATRY, NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH AND NEUROSCIENCES (INSTITUTE OF NATIONAL IMPORTANCE) BANGALORE, 560029 2017 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH AND NEUROSCIENCESRead MoreHealth Advocacy Campaign3015 Words   |  13 Pages6 million individuals live with a serious mental illness such as schizophrenia, depression, or bipolar disorder (National Alliance on Mental Illness, 2013). http://www.nami.org/factsheets/mentalillness_factsheet.pdf. Further, data revealed that 20 percent of youth ages 13 to 18 years old have experienced severe mental disorders within a given year, and about 13 percent of these populations are pediatrics patients that range between the ages of ages 8 to 15 years old. The United States spends nearlyRead MoreMedical Test with Answers Essay example16933 Words   |  68 Pagescriterion for an occupational and environmental health nurse? A. Serves as a consultant to businesses and management. B. Implements health programs for construction workers. Correct C. Designs quality improvement methods that measure health outcomes. D. Conducts research studies that enhance health safety. Implementing health programs for construction workers (B) is an example of a competent performance criterion in management, which includes monitoring of the quality and effectiveness of vendor servicesRead MoreChildhood Abuse and Neglect in an Outpatient Clinical Sample: Prevalence and Impact4707 Words   |  19 PagesThe American Journal of Family Therapy, 41:198–211, 2013 Copyright  © Taylor Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 0192-6187 print / 1521-0383 online DOI: 10.1080/01926187.2012.677662 Childhood Abuse and Neglect in an Outpatient Clinical Sample: Prevalence and Impact LIN SHI Specialization in Marriage and Family Therapy, School of Family, Consumer, and Nutrition Sciences, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois, USA The study examined the prevalence of ï ¬ ve types of childhood trauma in aRead MoreComprehensive 1 Essay18452 Words   |  74 Pagesfor an occupational and environmental health nurse? A.   Serves as a consultant to businesses and management. B.   Implements health programs for construction workers.  Correct C.   Designs quality improvement methods that measure health outcomes. D.   Conducts research studies that enhance health safety. Implementing health programs for construction workers (B) is an example of a competent performance criterion in management, which includes monitoring of the quality and effectiveness of vendor servicesRead MoreTechnology Has Impacted Our Lives6520 Words   |  27 Pages 2010, 2013 the percentage of the world population using internet is 16%, 30% 39% respectively. In the developing world it is 8%, 21% 31% and in the developed world it is 51%, 67% 77% (ITU, 2013). Excessive internet use not only generates disorders but it can sometimes be distressing and disabling (Shapira et al., 2003). Social networking services Internet continues to grow beyond our belief. A social networking service is a platform to build social networks or social relations among peopleRead MoreGsk Annual Report 2010135604 Words   |  543 Pagesfeel better, live longer GlaxoSmithKline Annual Report 2010 Contents Business review P08–P57 Governance and remuneration P58–P101 Financial statements P102–P191 Shareholder information P192–P212 Business review 2010 Performance overview Research and development Pipeline summary Products, competition and intellectual property Regulation Manufacturing and supply World market GSK sales performance Segment reviews Responsible business Financial review 2010 Financial position and resources Financial

Essay on Cartesian Dualism and Gilbert Ryle - 1899 Words

Gilbert Ryle is well known in the philosophical world specifically as a behaviorist. According to Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy behaviorist are â€Å"followers in the ‘ordinary language’ tradition of analytic philosophy, while, for the most part, regarding behavioral scientific hopes as vain, hold views that are, in other respects, strongly behaviorists†(Hauser 1). In the middle of the twentieth century the ordinary language behaviorist movement was strongly covered by Ryle and Wittgenstein. These bright minds established a relationship; â€Å"In 1929 Ryle met Wittgenstein and struck up a friendship that profoundly altered the direction of Ryle’s Philosophical thinking†( Stroll 147). Oxford took over for Cambridge as the center of philosophy†¦show more content†¦It is not merely an assemblage of particular mistakes. It is one big mistake and a mistake of a special kind. It is, namely, a category mistake†(Ryle 26). Ryles thesis i n The Concept of Mind is that the official doctrine has key principles that â€Å"are unsound and that conflict with the whole body of what we know about minds when we are not speculating about them†(Ryle 23). Laid out, the official doctrine retain that every person has a body and a mind, that they are normally â€Å"harnessed† together and that after death of a body the mind may continue to function and exists. Cartesian theory summarized; embraces that volitional acts of the body are caused by volitionl acts of the mind thus mental acts determine physical acts. Ryle thought the ‘official theory’ was absurd or bitter like, and labels it â€Å"the dogma of the Ghost in the Machine†. A great portion of Ryle’s argument is pointed toward a â€Å"category mistake†. These mistakes that Ryle makes note â€Å"The mistakes were made by people who did not know how to wield the concepts University, division and team-spirit. Their puzzles arose from inability to use certain items the English vocabulary†(27). This dualist doctrine formed a polar opposition between the mind and body. Ryle states that the official doctrine as a category mistake; â€Å"It represents the facts of mental life as if they belonged to one logical type or category (or range of types or categories), when they actually belong to another†(26). Meaning mind andShow MoreRelatedDescartes Teachings On Dualism977 Words   |  4 Pages To understand how the dualist commits a category mistake, one must first understand Descartes’ teachings on dualism from the Meditations on First Philosophy. Firstly, Descartes sees the mind as an immaterial, non-physical soul. He believes that his thoughts can be altered but he can never be tricked into the thinking that he is thinking when he is not. While he has complete faith in the existence of his mind, he doubts the existence of his body and the existence of other people s minds. The reasonRead Mor eThe Theory Of The Mind Body Dualism1232 Words   |  5 Pagesaccording to the Encyclopedia Britannica, â€Å"was one of the first to abandon scholastic Aristotelianism and created the first version of the modern mind-body dualism or emotion† (Encyclopedia Britannica). Born on March 31, 1596, he was dubbed as the Father of Modern Philosophy. His theory on the mind-body dualism, also known as Cartesian Dualism, created a stem of the modern problem of the relationship between the mind and body. He created the early version to further explain the interaction of theRead MoreCartesian Dualism vs Logical Behaviorism Essay1483 Words   |  6 Pagesrelevant to philosophy of the mind and discussed through a variety of arguments. Two of the most important arguments with this discussion are Cartesian dualism and logical behaviorism, both of which argue the philosophy of the mind in two completely different ways. Robert Lane, a professor at the University of West Georgia, define the tw o as follows: Cartesian dualism is the theory that the mind and body are two totally different things, capable of existing separately, and logical behaviorism is the theoryRead More Gilbert Ryles The Concept of Mind Essay2412 Words   |  10 PagesGilbert Ryles The Concept of Mind In The Concept of Mind Gilbert Ryle attempts, in his own words, to explode the myth of Cartesian dualism. His primary method in this endeavour is to explain why it is a logical error to describe minds and bodies with semantically similar language; while secondarily, he proposes that even to speak of minds as a second-order ontology is to take the first step in the wrong direction towards intellectual clarity. Thus, with the desire to arrive at this hypotheticalRead MoreThe Mind And Body Problem1443 Words   |  6 Pagesstates. Behaviours visually express mental states better than knowing if one has a Cartesian soul or the requirement of a normal human brain. Body: It is reasonable to think that the patient has the usual range of mental states because she is behaviourally indistinguishable from a normal human. Behaviours make mental states more evidentially obvious than knowing the brain state of a patient or if they have a Cartesian soul or not. Doctor 4 provides the argument that since the patient is behaviourallyRead MoreEssay on The Philosophy of Cognitive Science2158 Words   |  9 PagesThe Philosophy of Cognitive Science Psychophysical dualism — the distinction between mind and body — is the counterposition between essentially irreducible elements: the mind and body. Such a dualism implies the main ontological problem of the philosophy of cognitive science and philosophy of mind: the mind-body problem (MBP). The dualism and the referred-to problem has been insistently discussed in the philosophical tradition and several solutions have been proposed. Such solutions are properlyRead MoreDualism And Its Effects On The World1870 Words   |  8 Pageshave been gracefully put to rest, Dualism has, for better or worse, stuck around. Here I will briefly discuss a few of the proposed alternatives to Dualism and some of the issues they have encountered, with the aim to show that, unlike those subjects covered by the physical sciences, the mind brings it some unique properties that may simply not lend themselves to physical explanation. Ryle s Onslaught and the Behaviorists In his book The Concept of Mind, Gilbert Ryle made a seminal argument that wouldRead MoreThe Mind Body Problem, By Rene Descartes Essay1331 Words   |  6 Pageslarge collection of problems which focuses upon the fundamental issue of reality and knowledge in so far as such analysis may clarify the relationship between the mind and body, and the intelligibility of any alleged relationship between them. Cartesian dualism holds the presupposition that man is made of two elements, a body and a soul (mind). This presumption is informed by the notion that man by his ability to think, choose, reason, imagine, etc. cannot just be physical, there must be something inRead MoreWhat Advantages Does Spinoza’s Substance Monism Have over Descartes’ Dualism?3467 Words   |  14 PagesDescartes’ dualism. Through works such as the Ethics, Spinoza seeks to address the main flaws in Descartes’ philosophy. These flaws included but were by no means limited to, proof for the existence of God and the interaction between mind and body. This essay will highlight the advantages of Spinoza’s monism over Descartes’ dualism by looking at Spinoza’s response to these issues. First, in order to consider the advantages of Spinoza’s substance monism over Descartes’ dualism it is necessaryRead MoreThe Cartesian Theory Of Mind1648 Words   |  7 Pagesresponsible for many ideas and theories still used in the philosophical world today. He earned the nickname â€Å"Father of modern philosophy† for his work. One of his most in depth and lasting legacies is his â€Å"mind-body dualism† thesis also known as the Cartesian theory of mind. The Cartesian theory states that there are two different types of existence, physical and mental. Whatever exists must fall into only one of these existences and they cannot be both. This could be compared to the two faces of

Pen and Paper Free Essays

Many people believe that formal â€Å"pen and paper† examinations are not the best method of assessing educational achievement.Discuss this view and give your own opinion.achievement ? improvement Schooling development is becoming increasingly popular and prominent as well as education improvement is (the improvement of education representing) (N+N) an essential stage for any countries(country) which seeking to develop itself. We will write a custom essay sample on Pen and Paper or any similar topic only for you Order Now Number of people (A considerable number of people ) think that using a pen and paper in examinations are(is) not the best way of appreciation education achievement(means by which to appreciate educational achievement) .Opponents regards(regard) that using(the use of) classic formal (pen and paper)examinations are(as being)(( the best manner of assessing education development (by which to assess educational development). This essay will discuss these tow (two) views in terms of the technological field and the traditional field .On the one hand , there is no justification for using traditional examinations in the presence (the face of the expansion) of technology . By(The use of) technological tools and programs becomes processing a data (makes data processing) after the test very(highly) comfortable and easy (straightforward). In addition , it can be use the information(the information can be used) to discover things(examine issues) such as the discovery of common mistakes , finding the most difficult questions and many more(so on) . Furthermore , it is really easy to correct examinations after the exams(subsequent to being sat) , as well as do not take a long(taking less) time to finish all it (such corrections). For example , the TCExam is an electronic tasting(testing) program which(for) making a exams and (that) it can correct 100 exams for (in) less than one minute . Because of technology , it could say (be said that) we do not use traditional exams are no longer needed.On the other hand , classic exams could reinforce a saving words(the retention of information) in the human memory rather(better) than any(other) method . For instance , According(according) to statistics , when the learner use writing(writes information) by hand , prevent forget words(they forget)30% for the (less of the information than a )person using a computer . Moreover , using a pen and paper in a formal are(setting allows for a) very straightforward examinations . When(When) are decided(deciding) to using(use) a traditional exams technique , there is only a need to (for) papers and pens , unlike technological exams which need to(a) complete set of equipment . and accurate . As a result , using(the use of a) formal (pen and paper) examination can represent a substantial element in education(educational) development .In conclusion , it might not be possible to cover all the aspects of this issue . However , this essay has focused only on the technological field and traditional fields . The most important points that have mentioned are that there is no justification for using traditional examinations in the presence of technology , and (whilst )using a pen and paper formal are(allows for a) very straightforward examinations . Finally , it can be said that using technological exams most likely represents the best way of assessing education(educational) achievement . How to cite Pen and Paper, Papers